Ancient Greek philosophy

Emergence of philosophy in ancient Greece and Rome

From around 9000 BC, some of the earliest farmers began to cultivate the mountain valleys and fertile plains of Anatolia in modern-day Turkey. After spreading out and settling along the Mediterranean coast, some groups sailed west, carrying their domesticated plants and animals with them, to settle on islands of the Aegean Sea. From there, some continued to mainland Greece. And from Greece, farming villages gradually spread across Europe.

By around 2000 BC, settlements on the large island of Crete had grown into cities with stone palaces, paved roads, running water, and sewers. Palace guards carried bronze weapons, and intricate paintings decorated palace walls.

Crete was a safe distance from the mainland. Its towns did not need defensive walls and its people lived in relative peace. Its naval power dominated the surrounding seas, and it rose to become a regional center for trade.

Its influence spread to mainland Greece, where hundreds of settlements were isolated by mountainous terrain. Fierce competition turned villages into fortified cities ruled by warrior kings, but no single king could dominate them all.

The build-up of chariot armies and battle fleets led to an intense period of rivalry between regional powers. Crete's wealth attracted waves of invasion and the island was beaten into submission. Regional power then moved to mainland Greece and remained there for hundreds of years.

Tensions remained high until around 1200 BC, when changing weather patterns produced years of severe drought and cold summers. Failed harvests led to famine followed by widespread rebellion and civil war. Cities were burned and abandoned. Palaces fell and were never rebuilt. Regional trade came to an end, and the art of writing was largely lost. Waves of desperate people migrated away from the region looking for new lands to settle. Greek civilization collapsed into a dark age that lasted for hundreds of years.

Homer

By around 900 BC, conditions had improved and the population was growing again. Greek traders re-established links with other Mediterranean civilizations. Increased trade and travel led to new influences being introduced into Greek culture. The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet and modified it to suit their own language.

The Greeks had been passing down stories by word of mouth about a golden age before the fall of civilization. Legends of heroic adventures and epic battles fought by ancient warriors and kings. The fortresses around which these battles were fought were still visible as ancient ruins.

Reciting these stories was popular entertainment, and over the centuries, storytellers added increasing degrees of fantasy, until eventually they became myths full of magical creatures that only vaguely resembled the actual events.

As the Greek alphabet took hold, an obscure poet, known only as Homer, used it to compose two of the earliest and most influential pieces of Greek literature. Homer's books contained many of the popular myths and legends from the golden age of Greece woven together to form epic adventure stories.

These stories had a profound effect on the Greeks, giving them a shared historical identity and sense of national pride. Greek children would be educated on these books for centuries to come.

The gods

Homer's books also helped strengthen the foundations of Greek religion. The central figures in his stories were the Greek gods, led by Zeus, the king of the gods and ruler of the sky. Other gods included the earth goddess, the god of the sea, the goddess of love, and the god of war. Gods were used to explain everything from human emotions to changes in the weather.

The gods depicted by Homer acted selfishly and were driven by emotions like favoritism and jealousy. They behaved like ordinary people except they were immortal and had supernatural powers.

As the collection of religious writings grew, the portrayal of the gods became more mature and purposeful. They became dispensers of justice, rewarding the good and punishing the wicked. Moderation and self-control were judged to be good. Pride, arrogance, and unbridled ambition caused the gods to act to bring about a person's downfall and disgrace.

Greek religion had no central organization. Instead there were holy places where temple priests interpreted the wishes and opinions of the gods for those who asked and could afford to pay. Prayers and sacrifices to the gods were usually offered by individual families in front of common household shrines.

Athens

The sophistication of the Greek language and the widespread use of writing led to improvements in Greek government. Written constitutions allowed governments to depend less on the rich and powerful imposing their will, and more on developing and refining written laws which clearly defined people's rights and obligations.

Like other Greek cities at the time, Athens adopted a written constitution around 620 BC. However, its first constitution was said to have been written in blood, as the penalty for every crime was death. It also favored wealthy landowners and led to many peasant farmers being enslaved by debt.

Soon, under the threat of peasant rebellion, a respected elder named Solon was asked to resolve the crisis by writing a new constitution. His new laws curbed the power of the wealthy and empowered citizens by allowing the election of government officials. Solon wrote a poem about the importance of a good constitution...

Never will our city be destroyed by the will of the gods, for we are guarded by the wise goddess Athena. But the Athenians themselves, seduced by money, seek mindlessly to corrupt this great city. Helped by the evil schemes of their leaders, whose arrogance shall make them suffer, for they do not know how to restrain their greed nor be discreet in their feasting.

Sparing neither sacred ground nor public property, greedily they steal from one place or another. Athena notes quietly and in time she exacts her retribution. Behold the destruction of our city as vile slavery awakens civil strife. War wipes out for many their cherished youth. Our much loved city is worn down by violence as the wicked stir them into confrontation. The poor are shackled and sold as slaves to foreign lands.

My soul commands me teach the Athenians that a bad constitution brings civic turmoil, but a good one brings order and strengthens community. It shackles wrongdoing and smooths out the rough. It checks greed, tempers arrogance, and withers the fruits of reckless impulse. It takes crooked judgments and makes them straight, halts treasonable acts, and ends the poison of violent conflict. And so under it, everything for mankind becomes whole and wise.

Solon's constitution was reformed over the next century into a democratic government in which ultimate power was held by an assembly of thousands of male citizens. Wealthy landowners were never happy with this, and some secretly conspired, waiting for an opportunity to regain control.

Meanwhile, slavery continued to power the Greek economy. Unskilled manual labor was considered beneath the dignity of a free man. Liberated from the need to do work, some men chose to spend their days in thoughtful contemplation, reading and writing.

Greek science

Greek thinkers began speculating about the nature of the universe. Unconvinced by religious explanations, they believed that through observation and clear thinking, they might be able to find natural rather than supernatural explanations for the workings of the world.

One early thinker claimed that lightning was caused by clouds being split by gusts of wind rather than thunderbolts hurled by Zeus. Growing freedom of speech and the lack of any powerful priesthood allowed some Greeks to openly express such views.

It was commonly believed at the time that the world was composed of four basic elements: earth, water, air, and fire. But there were some who now suggested that everything was made of tiny indivisible particles that were too small to see, particles they called atoms.

Some wrote that nothing could be known for certain because everything changes over time. Others wrote that nothing ever changes, there is only one infinite, eternal, and indivisible reality, despite our senses presenting us with the illusion of a changing world.

Some believed the universe to be infinite and eternal, others suggested that it grew like a seed from boundless chaos. Many believed that there was a more abstract reality that existed beyond what our senses can perceive. One early thinker named Pythagoras suggested that this ultimate reality was based upon mathematical relationships.

Each new generation of thinkers enthusiastically challenged the speculations of previous generations. No idea was too sacred to be questioned.

Religious morality

Although there was no powerful priesthood, the conservative political establishment supported traditional religion as a source of moral guidance for the community. Speculation about the workings of nature caused people to question the existence of the gods, thereby undermining religious morality.

One early thinker named Xenophanes claimed that the gods and goddesses were merely human inventions. He asked why he should continue to worship gods who displayed such bad manners, questionable morals, and childish emotions. He instead suggested believing in one greater god who did not resemble mortal men in either body or mind.

Another thinker named Anaxagoras claimed that the sun was not a god but a red-hot rock, that the moon reflected the sun's light, and that eclipses were a natural event. Conservatives accused him of irreverence toward the gods and he was sentenced to death. His punishment was later reduced to exile.

Schools and skepticism

The wealth and freedom of Athens attracted people from around the region. Schools opened where teachers lectured on a variety of practical subjects like law, politics, and commerce. For a fee, anyone could get an education in useful skills to help them get ahead in life.

For most people, practical skills were more valuable than philosophical questioning. In any case, it was widely believed that the hidden workings of the universe might never be known. Anything beyond what the senses can perceive is merely opinion.

But the fears of the conservatives were soon realized when some schools began teaching that there were no absolute truths and no universal standards of behavior. They said the only knowledge that mattered was the kind that led to material success. In their view, a career in politics or law was not about being truthful, but rather about using persuasive arguments to convince others to believe your opinions. Some even claimed that personal ambition was more valuable than the welfare of the community.

In philosophy, there was a growing trend towards this kind of skepticism. Some said that almost everything that we once believed to be true was later shown to be false, and the values that we passionately hold on to are only ever relative to the times in which we live. Many of our ideas about right and wrong are merely imposed by those in power.

Some did not even want to believe that there was nothing worth believing in, because then they might have been accused of believing in something.

Plato and Socrates

Although many Greek thinkers were denying the existence of absolute truths and values, philosophers like Plato were trying to explain how they might actually exist.

Plato believed that the best way to justify important human values like justice and goodness was to think of them as being like earthly reflections of eternal universal concepts that exist in some kind of higher perfect reality.

Plato's books are among the earliest and best preserved works of moral philosophy. They were often written as debates between people with differing points of view. The main character in the debates was often Plato's old mentor, the legendary Socrates.

Socrates wanted people to think about what they believed rather than just blindly accepting whatever was passed down to them by tradition or told to them by figures of authority.

He said that the secret to being wise was to realize that we really do not know much. Everybody wants to think that what they believe is right, and they cling to the beliefs they are familiar with, even when they do not fully understand the issues. It takes a great deal of humility to admit the limits of our knowledge.

He taught that by asking the right questions, and then subjecting the answers to further examination, agreement might eventually be reached about standards for human thought and behavior. He was notorious for stopping people in the street and questioning what they believed.

Socrates was eventually accused of undermining people's belief in the traditional gods of the city, and thereby corrupting the morals of the young. By a slim majority, a jury of 500 citizens found him guilty and he was condemned to death. Plato wrote an account of his trial in which Socrates said to the jury...

If you were to say to me, "Socrates, this time we will ignore the accusation and let you go, but only on one condition, that you stop asking questions and practising philosophy. If we catch you carrying on like this again, you shall be put to death."

Well, supposing you offered to acquit me on these terms, then I would say, "Men of Athens, although you have my respect and admiration, I am more devoted to the god than I am to you. As long as I have life and strength, I will never stop practicing philosophy and questioning people and pointing out the truth to everyone that I meet."

I shall continue saying, "My dear friend, as a citizen of Athens, the greatest city in the world, famous for its wisdom and power, are you not ashamed that you devote yourself to acquiring as much wealth and fame as possible, and yet give no attention to truth and understanding and the perfection of your soul?"

And if anyone disputes this and claims to care about such things, then I will not let him go. I will question him and examine him and put him to the test. And if i think that despite what he says, he has made no real progress towards virtue, then I will lecture him for neglecting what is most important and focusing on trivial matters instead. And I will do this to everyone that I meet, young or old, citizen or foreigner, but especially to you my fellow citizens, as we are more closely related.

For this is what the god commands of me, and i believe that no greater good has ever come to you in this city than my service to the god, for I spend my entire life going about trying to persuade you, young and old, to make your primary concern not for your bodies or your possessions, but for the perfection of your souls.

And I will keep saying to you that wealth cannot buy virtue, but virtue cultivates wealth and every other blessing, for both the individual and the state.

The teachings of Socrates influenced a generation of thinkers in Athens, but he never wrote anything down. Most of what we know about him comes from the writings of Plato, so it is difficult to know how many of his ideas were actually Plato's.

Plato established a school called 'The Academy' in Athens in 387 BC. His mission was to educate politicians and improve the quality of government. He believed the main purpose of good government was to shape the moral character of its citizens, inspiring them to be committed to the welfare of the state.

Plato did not believe in democracy, instead believing that only philosophers have the wisdom to govern in the best interests of the people. Plato's school remained open for the next 900 years.

One of Plato's students was Aristotle, who was later employed to teach Alexander the Great, who conquered Persia and Egypt, spreading Greek culture throughout the region. Aristotle later opened his own school of philosophy in Athens.

Aristotle believed that knowledge about the universe and about human nature could only be gained through the careful study of nature and the painstaking collection and organization of facts. He was suspicious of any ideas that did not come from experience and common sense.

Aristotle's books detailed the scientific and ethical ideas of his time. Although most of his conclusions have since been replaced by newer discoveries, his writings remained an inspiration to scientific thinkers until the beginning of the modern age.

Philosophy

Greek philosophers had begun to ask the ultimate questions. What is the universe made of and where did it come from? Do gods exist? If so then do they interest themselves in human affairs? How do we think? Why do we exist? And what happens to us after we die?

Greek philosophy grew to replace traditional religion as the educated person's guide to truth and morality. Even our relationship with the gods became the domain of the philosopher, not the priest. Religion now only existed to perform ceremonies to appease the gods.

Epicurus

An influential thinker named Epicurus established his own school of philosophy in Athens around 306 BC. Epicurus believed that everything in the universe has a natural explanation. His philosophy grew to become one of the most popular beliefs in the Greek and Roman empires, and it remained popular for centuries.

According to Epicurus, the universe is infinite and eternal, and everything in the universe is made up of fundamental atomic particles. Even living things are made up of particles, and it should be possible to explain the mind and its senses through the interactions between these particles.

Everything happens according to the laws of nature, and not because of the divine will of any gods. Epicurus did not deny the existence of gods, because nature seems to have planted the idea of them firmly in the minds of men. But there is no divine intervention or any other act of god, and there is no divine purpose or any other religious objective. We have no other significance beyond that which we give ourselves.

He said that if the gods listened to the prayers of men, then all of humankind would quickly perish, because people seem eager to pray for each other's destruction.

Epicurus believed there was no life after death. People are made up of atoms that are dispersed into nature when they die. When the body dies, so does the mind. This is the only life that we have, so we must try to live it as happily as possible.

All that is needed for happiness is a life among friends, a body free from pain, and a peaceful mind. Living honestly brings the greatest peace of mind, and a correct understanding of nature can help free a person from needless fears and anxieties.

He said that happiness can be gained by pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain. But always consider the consequences of pursuing pleasure, because some forms of pleasure result in a pain which is many times greater than any pleasure to be gained. And all things are best enjoyed in moderation.

He said that it was wrong to think that just because life had no meaning that people would have no price to pay for the things they did. People are called to account throughout their lives by the judgments of others, or by the fear of being found out.

The followers of Epicurus were often accused by rival groups of preaching self-indulgence. It was said they believed we should abandon our restraints and live for the moment. In the centuries to come, the word 'Epicurean' came to describe someone who lived only for pleasure.

As the Greek Empire declined and the Roman Empire expanded, Epicureanism was gradually replaced by Stoicism as the most influential philosophy in the region.

Stoicism

The word 'Stoic' came from the name of the place in Athens from which a philosopher named Zeno began teaching his philosophies around 300 BC. Other thinkers built on his work, and their collective efforts produced a philosophical system that attempted to embrace "all things divine and human".

The Stoics believed in a supreme power, which could be described in any number of ways according to choice or context. Descriptions included 'the universe', 'nature', 'destiny', 'fate', 'providence', 'the divine will', 'god', or as a concession to traditional religion, 'the gods'.

They saw the entire world as a single community in which all men were brothers. They believed that we are all part of nature's scheme, and although we are unable to perceive our place in this scheme, it is our duty to fulfill our purpose and cooperate with nature by living virtuously.

They believed that the path to happiness is to pursue virtue, not pleasure. Virtue appears as all of the admirable qualities of character, such as wisdom, justice, courage, and self-control. Happiness comes from the higher quality of life that you will experience as the result of your virtuous behavior.

The Stoics saw no need to believe in reward or punishment after death, as virtue in this life was seen as its own reward and vice as its own punishment.

They believed that they only needed the basic necessities of life. They did not set too high a value on things that could be taken away from them at any moment. They had no time for greed or ambition and they did not seek to live in luxury.

They believed that our ability to reason separates us from the animals. Reason is a divine essence and it connects us with god. Our powers of reason should be strong enough to overcome physical pain, emotional suffering, and the fear of death.

With some effort, you can learn to control your passions and desires and take complete control of your emotional life. And with realistic expectations, you should be able to resign yourself without any complaint to whatever your fate may be.

Stoic philosophy was said to be like a living animal, with logic as its bones, ethics as its flesh, and physics as its soul.

The influence of Stoicism increased steadily over the centuries. The Romans were particularly attracted to Stoicism because it promoted justice, bravery, seriousness, self-discipline, and self-sacrifice - qualities that were suited to the Roman character. Despite being a philosophy, it became the religion of educated men and women throughout the empire. It influenced all of the better aspects of Roman culture, from good government to inspiring literature.

However, it failed to convince everyone. Many saw it as being too rational, unemotional, and placing too high an expectation on their behavior. The spiritual hunger of the masses was not satisfied by philosophy but by religious cults.

Rome

For thousands of years, a steady stream of settlers had been navigating their way through the mountain ranges north of Italy. They were attracted by the mild climate and fertile soil of the Italian peninsula. And the mountain ranges provided a natural barrier against large-scale land invasions.

By around 800 BC, as the population of Greece was growing, people were looking for new lands to settle across the sea. Hundreds of colonies were established along the southern coast of Italy, eventually forming an area of land which became known as Greater Greece.

The city of Rome was built on the Tiber River in central Italy, which allowed convenient transport to the sea. Rome's hills provided a good defensive position against enemy attacks. The surrounding land was fertile and provided plenty of building materials. Around 500 BC, Rome overthrew its king and adopted a constitution which shared power between a senate and elected officials.

The Romans eventually subdued the Greeks in southern Italy and extended their influence across the entire Italian Peninsula. They adopted the Greek alphabet and modified it to suit their own language. They also embraced Greek art, religion, and philosophy.

The Phoenicians had long been establishing colonies throughout the Mediterranean. The city of Carthage on the north coast of Africa became their greatest city. From 264 BC, Rome was drawn into a series of brutal wars with Carthage which continued for over a hundred years. By the time Carthage was captured and reduced to rubble, Rome had grown to become the dominant military power in the region.

The government of Rome was practical and efficient and its army was highly trained and well equipped. As the Romans rid themselves of hostile neighbors, and as they were called upon by friendly neighbors to settle regional disputes, they gradually expanded their area of influence across the remnants of the old Greek Empire.

Wherever the Romans went, they established a common law, common language, and common currency. They built roads, bridges, aqueducts, and irrigation channels. They constructed luxurious villas with heated floors and heated baths. And in the towns and cities they built temples, theaters, and stadiums.

The spread of Roman civilization was best described at the time by the Roman historian Tacitus...

Native populations, scattered and barbarous and inclined to war, were made accustomed to peace and leisure through the charms of luxury.

Private encouragement and public aid were given to the building of temples, courts of justice, and stately dwellings. The industrious were praised and rewarded and the lazy were criticized. Thus honorable rivalry took the place of forced labor.

The sons of the chiefs were given a liberal education, and those who once disdained the language of Rome now coveted its eloquence. They even took a liking to our style of dress, and the 'toga' became fashionable.

Step by step they were led to things of idle decadence - the lounge, the bath, the elegant banquet. All this in their ignorance they called civilization, when it was but a part of their servitude. And so, the gullible natives eventually came to call their slavery 'culture'.

Roman emperors

During the last century BC, it became possible for a single individual to amass more power than the government of Rome. After gaining control of the northern armies and conquering Gaul, Julius Caesar marched into Italy. During his short time in power, he revolutionized Roman politics. After Julius Caesar, and after the success of Augustus Caesar, all of the power of Rome would now be concentrated in the hands of one man, the emperor.

Being the emperor of Rome was mostly a matter of keeping the army under control and protecting the borders. Many of the emperors gained power through military force, sometimes after long and bloody civil wars. They often resorted to bribery or murder to remove their opponents. Once in power, it was not long before they were assassinated by their palace guards, defeated in battle by their friends, or killed by their own soldiers to avoid further bloodshed.

Tradition dictated that when a leader died, his power would pass down to his son or to the next nearest family member. When Roman emperors passed their power down to family members, it did not take long before the empire passed into the hands of fools, madmen, or children. The most stable line of emperors were chosen by the previous emperor and adopted as their son and successor.

Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius was born into an aristocratic family in Rome in the year 121. His father died when he was young, and he was cared for by his grandfather and given an education in Stoic philosophy. As a teenager he was adopted into the line of succession and served as a trusted advisor to the reigning emperor before taking the throne himself in the year 161.

Before his reign, the empire had enjoyed centuries of relative peace and prosperity. But in his first year, the Parthians tried to regain control of the eastern provinces. The Parthians were crushed, but the returning soldiers carried back a plague which was spreading from Asia. The disease devastated the population of the empire, seriously diminishing Rome's resources.

Barbarian tribes then crossed the northern frontier and drove deep into Roman territory. The emperor personally commanded the empire's defense, pushing the tribesmen back across the frontier. He then spent much of the rest of his life battling to force the barbarians into submission, a task he almost completed before dying of plague in the year 180.

During his reign, Aurelius depended on Stoic philosophy for guidance through his years of hardship. He applied his philosophical ideals to provide a style of government that was honest and fair. He recorded his thoughts in a diary which later became one of the defining works of Stoic philosophy. Much of this was written while he was camped with his army at the front line between battles...

The life of a man is but a moment of time in an ever-changing world. His perceptions are vague, his body ages and decays, his mind spins restlessly, his fortune is uncertain, and his fame is doubtful. Things of the body are like running water, and things of the mind like smoke and dreams. Life is like war, like marching through a foreign land, and after glory comes oblivion.

What then can a man use to guide his steps? There is only one thing, a right philosophy. One that trains him to protect his inner spirit from insult or harm, so he may rise above both pleasure and pain, so he never does anything without purpose or with deceit, so he does not depend on another man's actions or inaction, and so he accepts everything that happens, and whatever he is given, as having come from wherever it is that he himself came.

Most importantly, a philosophy that helps him accept death with grace, as being nothing more than the dissolving of the elements from which every living thing is made. If these elements themselves take no harm from their ceaseless forming and reforming, then why should he fear the release of the elements within himself? It is simply nature's way, and in the ways of nature there is no evil to be found.

Think of how long you have delayed these matters, and how although the gods keep granting you opportunities, you keep avoiding them. It is time now to learn about the nature of the universe to which you belong, and about the higher nature you flowed from, as a stream flows from its spring, and to realize that you are only here for a short time. If you do not embrace this opportunity to find clarity, then it will be gone, and you will be gone, and you will never get this chance again.

Either the universe is just a chaos of matter, randomly forming intricate structures which dissolve over time and scatter away, or it is an ordered system governed by a purposeful higher nature. If it is only chaos, then why should I even bother with it? Or why should I care about anything other than how my dust will return to the earth? Why even trouble myself, when regardless of what I do, my body will eventually be dissolved? But if there is order and purpose, then I will show reverence to the whole, and I will remain steadfast in duty, and I will trust the governing higher nature.

Do not let greatness stain or change you, for it easily can. Keep yourself simple, good, sincere, serious, humble, gracious, and affectionate. Stand up for truth and justice, stay devoted to your duty, and accept whatever your fate may be. Always strive to be the kind of man that philosophy would want you to be. Respect the gods and help your fellow man. Life is short and this earthly existence has only one reward, that you may honor the divine and work for the common good.

In the performance of your duty, do not be concerned whether you are freezing cold or comfortably warm, exhausted or fresh from sound sleep, spoken badly about or highly praised, or dying, or doing something else. For even dying is one of the acts of life, and in this too, it is more than enough to simply do the task well.

In every moment, in everything you do, as a Roman and as a man, do those things with dignity, compassion, independent mind, and commitment to justice; and you will not need to worry about much else. This is easier if you act like every act were your last. Then you may not be so careless or unreasonable, or need to impress others, or think of yourself too highly, or complain about your lot in life. See how few things a man needs to master for his days to be peaceful and spiritual. The gods require nothing more of us than to live this way.

Religious cults

Julius and Augustus Caesar were both declared to be gods after their death. It then became tradition for the senate to declare dead emperors to be gods. This led one emperor to joke with his dying words, "Alas I think I am becoming a god". Some emperors even demanded that the senate declare them to be gods while they were still living. People were expected to participate in ceremonies to honor the emperors as gods, regardless of what they truly believed.

Temples throughout the empire contained statues of Jupiter, the king of the gods, who was the Roman equivalent of the Greek god Zeus.

Other temples celebrated Isis, the Egyptian queen of heaven. Her husband Osiris had died and been reborn as the god of the afterlife. Statues of Isis depicted her holding their baby son Horus.

But as traditional religion declined, new religious cults competed to meet the spiritual needs of the masses. Since the invention of the alphabet, there had been one thousand years to think about, experiment with, and write down all of the essential ingredients of religion and philosophy. New cults now borrowed heavily from the lessons of the past.

One influential cult was based upon a mystical interpretation of Plato. Neo-Platonism was like a rational science that attempted to break down and describe every aspect of the divine essence and its relationship with the human soul.

An Alexandrian Jew named Philo tried using Greek philosophy to interpret the Jewish scriptures. He wanted to unite the two traditions by suggesting that the Greek philosophers had been inspired by the same God who had revealed himself to the Jews.

But only Christianity had the right combination of ingredients to appeal to the common folk and also eventually the ruling elite.

It had ancient scriptures, a solid creation myth, its own collection of inspired writings, a convincing story about the appearance of God as a man, a morality based upon personal maturity rather than harsh punishment, role models for both men and women, and a good organizational structure. Christianity was destined to grow and become the dominant religion.

As the Church grew in power, the empire collapsed into regional kingdoms, and Greek philosophy became a target of Christianity's hostility toward other beliefs. Many of philosophy's followers fled east to Syria and other lands to escape persecution by the Christian authorities.

From that time on, the Church became a unifying force binding the remnants of the old empire together. For the next thousand years, the only philosophies permitted in Europe would be those that did not conflict with the Christian understanding of existence.

© Cosmic Nexus